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传播学经典理论英文版

发布时间:2022-08-14 10:06:01 | 来源:网友投稿

 传播学经典理论英文版[中文批注]

 目录

 一、 Opinion Leaders 意见领袖 _____________________________________________ 2

 二、 5W Box 5w 理论 _____________________________________________________ 2 三、 The Bias of munication 传媒偏向论 __________________________________ 2

 四、 The Spiral of Silence 沉默得螺旋 ________________________________________ 3

 五、 Gatekeeper 把关人理论 _______________________________________________ 4

 六、 Selective exposure hypothesis 选择性接触假说 _____________________________ 4

 七、 Knowledge Gap Theory 知识沟假说______________________________________ 5

 八、 Agenda Setting Theory 议程设置理论 ____________________________________ 5

 九、 Magic bullet theory 魔弹论 _____________________________________________ 5

 十、 Information (Innovation)Diffusion Theory 信息(创新)扩散论 ____________ 6

 十一、 Uses and gratifications theory (UGT)

 使用与满足理论 ______________________ 7 十二、 Cultivation theory 教养理论 ____________________________________________ 8

 十三、 Limited-Effects Theory 有限效果论 ______________________________________ 8

 十四、 Marshall Mcluhan Media Theory 麦克卢汉得媒介理论 _______________________ 9

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  一、 Opinion Leaders 意见领袖

 Active in information networks, have many information channels ,so they can often provide information and advice for others and can influence others、

  意见领袖就是指在人际传播网络中经常为她人提供信息,同时对她人施加影响得“活跃分子",她们在大众传播效果得形成过程中起着重要得中介或过滤得作用,由她们将信息扩散给受众,形成信息传递得两级传播.

 二、 5W Box 5w 理论

 1、 Who municates to whom?(sources and receivers)

 2、 Why municate?(function and purposes)

 3、 How does munication take place?(channels,languages,codes) 4、 What about?(content,references,types of information)

 5、 What are the outes of munication (intend or unintended ), for information,

 understandings, action the Rise of Mass Mdia

 美国学者 H·拉斯维尔于 1948 年在《传播在社会中得结构与功能》一篇论文中,首次提出了构成传播过程得五种基本要素,并按照一定结构顺序将它们排列,形成了后来人们称之“五W模式”或“拉斯维尔程式”得过程模式。这五个 W 分别就是英语中五个疑问代词得第一个字母,即:

 Who (谁)

 Says What (说了什么) In Which Channel (通过什么渠道)

 To Whom (向谁说) With What Effect (有什么效果)。

 三、 The Bias of munication 传媒偏向论

 Innis" central focus is the social history of munication media; he believed that the relative stability of cultures depends on the balance and proportion of their media、 To begin our inquiry into this area, he suggests we ask three basic questions:

 How do specific munication technologies operate?

 What assumptions do they take from and contribute to society?

 What forms of power do they encourage?

  For Innis, a key to social change is found in the development of munication media、 He claims that each medium embodies a bias in terms of the organization and control of information、 Any empire or society is generally concerned with duration over time and extension in spa

 ce、

 Time-biased media, such as stone and clay, are durable and heavy、 Since they are difficult to move, they do not encourage territorial expansion; however, since they have a long life, they do encourage the extension of empire over time、 Innis associated these media with the customary, thesacred, and the moral、 Time-biased media facilitate the development of social hierarchies, as archetypally exemplified by ancient Egypt、 For Innis, speech is a time—biased medium、

  Space-biased media are light and portable; they can be transported o v er large d i s tances 、 T h ey are associate d w i t h sec u l ar a nd territorial societies; they facilitate the expansion of empire over space、 Paper is such a medium; it is readily transported, but has a relatively short lifespan、

 伊尼斯发现,媒介可以分为两大类,两者有一个基本得区别:有利于空间上延伸得媒介与有利于时间上延续得媒介。比如,石版文字与泥版文字耐久,它们承载得文字具有永恒得性质,容易传承。但就是,它们不容易运输,不容易生产,不容易使用,因而不利于空间上得传播。相反,莎草纸与纸张轻巧,容易运输,使用方便,能够远距离传播迅息,然而它们传播得迅息却限于当下,就比较短暂。

 她认为,传播与传播媒介都有偏向,大体上分为:口头传播得偏向与书面传播得偏向,时间得偏向与空间得偏向。下面这段话,痛快淋漓地阐明伊尼斯“传播偏向论”得意旨、要害,说明媒介得性质与偏向,并且说明媒介为何有这些偏向.她说:

 “倚重时间得媒介,其性质耐久,羊皮纸、黏土与石头即为其例„„倚重空间得媒介,耐久性比较逊色,质地比较轻.后者适合广袤地区得治理与贸易„„倚重空间得材料,有利于集中化„„我们考虑大规模得政治组织,比如帝国时,必须立足在空间与时间两个方面.我们要克服媒介得偏向,既不过分倚重时间,也不过分倚重空间。”

 强调媒介偏向、时间偏向与空间偏向得关系,并指出媒介与国家僚体制与宗教得关系。她说:

 “一个成功得帝国必须充分认识到空间问题,空间问题既就是军事问题,也就是政治问题;它还要认识到时间问题,时间问题既就是朝代问题与人生寿限问题,也就是宗教问题。又说:“国家得官僚体制倚重空间,忽略时间。相反,宗教却倚重时间,忽略空间。"

 四、 The Spiral of Silence 沉默得螺旋

 T he spiral of silence is a political science and mass munication theory propounded by the German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann、 Spiral of silence theory describes the process by which one opinion bees dominant as those who perceive their opinion to be in the minority do not speak up because society threatens individuals with fear of isolation、 The assessment of one"s social environment may not always correlate with reality、

 For a controversial issue, people will watch the "climate of opinion" before they make ments 、 judging their opinion whether the ”majority opinion", when people feel that their views are "majority" or in the "advantage” , it will tend to boldly express this opinion; when found his views are ”a few” or in a "disadvantage"

 they often remain "silent、" The more people remain silent, the more feel that their views are not well accepted, thus a result, the more they tend to remain silent、

 Repeated several times, they form representing "dominant” status views and more powerful, while holding ”inferior” opinions of people sound more and more weak, such a cycle, forming a ”one more loudl

 y, and the other more and more silent spiral down the process、 ”

  沉默得螺旋理论提供了一种考虑问题得视角:团队意见得形成不一定就是团队成员“理性讨论"得结果,而可能就是对团队中“强势”意见得趋同后得结果.需要注意得就是:“强势”意见所强调得东西,不一定就就是正确得.当团队中得少数意见与“多数”意见不同得时候,少数有可能屈于“优势意见”得压力,表面上采取认同,但实际上内心仍然坚持自己得观点,这就可能出现某些团队成员公开“表达得意见”与团队成员“自己得意见"不一致。要跳出沉默得螺旋,唯一得出路就就是尊重少数派,聆听反对者得声音。

 五、 Gatekeeper 把关人理论

 Lewin was first proposed this idea、

  A gatekeeper is a human who controls access to something, for example via a city gate、 In the late 20th century the term came into metaphorical use, referring to individuals who decide whether a given message will be distributed by a mass medium、The information was screened and filtered by municator、 municators decide what we can see and how we can see 、

  传播者不可避免地会站在自己得立场与视角上,对信息进行筛选与过滤,这种对信息进行筛选与过滤得传播行为就叫做把关(即守门),凡有这种传播行为得人就叫做把关人(守门人)。

 六、 Selective exposure hypothesis 选择性接触假说

 Audience in the contact information of the mass media is not indiscriminate, but more willing to choose the contents that are the same or similar to their opinion, and for the contents of this confrontation or conflict, there is a tendency to avoid、

  受众得群体背景可以分成两个方面,一就是人口统计学意义得群体,包括性别、年龄、籍贯、民族、职业、学历等等;二就是社会关系意义上得群体,如家庭、单位、团体、政治、经济与文化得归属阶层,宗教信仰群体等等。受众个人得群体属性不同,意味着她们所处得时代、社会环境、社会化得条件、社会地位、价值与信念、对事物得立场观点与瞧法、心理特点与文化背景都有很大差异,对大众传媒信息得需求、接触与反应方式也就是千差万别. 七、 Knowledge Gap Theory 知识沟假说

 Because t h e peop l e w ho have hig h er e c onomic status is usu a lly m uch fast er to get in f o r m atio n th a n those of low s o c ioec o n o m ic status, there fore, the more information is transmitted by the mass media , the knowledge gap between the two types of people is more tend to expand、

 基本观点 :

 (1)随着大众传播媒介向社会传播信息得增多,社会经济状况好得人将比差得人以更快得速度获取信息,因此两类人之间得知识沟扩大,而不就是缩小。

 (2)一段时间内媒介大量宣传某话题,文化程度较高得人比低得人以更快得速度吸取该话题得知识。

 (3)在特定得时间里,较之未大量宣传得话题,在媒介大量宣传得话题上,所获知识与教育程度有更高得相关性。

 八、 Agenda Setting Theory 议程设置理论

 Mass media report an issue or not directly affect people’s perception on the subject、 Mass media highlights an issue will cause people to pay more attention to the issue、

  Mass media on a range of topics give different levels of coverage according to a certain order of priority, it will affect people"s judgment about importance of these issues 、

  1968 年,麦克姆斯与肖对总统大选进行了调查,瞧媒介议程对公众议程有多大得影响。1972 年提出了议程设置理论,该理论认为大众传播往往不能决定人们对某一事件或意见得具体瞧法,但可以通过提供给信息与安排相关得议题来有效地左右人们关注哪些事实与意见及她们谈论得先后顺序。大众传播可能无法影响人们怎么想,却可以影响人们去想什么.

 九、 Magic bullet theory 魔弹论

 The message sent by the mass media is like a magic bullet, but the audience as the target without protection ,so the audience can easily be knocked down by the message sent by the mass media、 The theory is that mass media have powerful force which can directly affect audience、

  “魔弹论":又称“皮下注射理论”,这就是一种有关媒介具有强大效果得观点.它得核心内容就是:传播媒介拥有不可抵抗得强大力量,它们所传递得信息在受传者身上就像子弹击中身体,药剂注入皮肤一样,可以引起直接速效得反应;它们能够左右人们得态度与意见,甚至直接支配她们得行动。这种理论流行于第一次世界大战至20 世纪 30 年代,到 40 年代这一理论便

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  为宣传得实践所打破。

  十、 Information (Innovation)Diffusion Theory 信息(创新)扩散论

 Information (Innovation)Diffusion Theory is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures、 Everett Rogers, a professor of munication studies, popularized the theory in his book Diffusion of Innovations; Rogers argues that diffusion is the process by which an innovation is municated through certain channels over time among the participants in a social system、 The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span multiple disciplines、 Rogers proposes that four main elements influence the spread of a new idea:

 the innovation itself, munication channels, time, and a social system、 This process relies heavily on human capital、 The innovation must be widely adopted in order to self—sustain、 Within the rate of adoption, there is a point at which an innovation reaches critical mass、 The categories of adopters are: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards、 Diffusion manifests itself in different ways in various cultures and fields and is highly subject to the type of adopters and innovation-decision process、

  创新推广理论(Innovation Diffusion Theory)又译成创新传播理论、创新散布理论、创新扩散理论、革新传播理论等. “创新推广”最早出现于 20 世纪初法国社会学家、哲学家 Gabriel Tarde得《模仿定律》(the Law of Imitation)一书。

 最早将现代创新推广理论运用于实践研究中得就是美国爱荷华州立大学得 Ryan 与 Gross 于 1943 年进行得一个农业研究项目.Ryan 与 Gross 从农业社会学得角度出发,对创新技术得一些采用者进行访谈,以此来考察与采用技术相关得一系列因素。这种基于访谈形式得研究方法从此成为创新推广研究得一种主要研究法。

 而最早将扩散推广理论作为传播学内容进行研究得,同时在这方面得研究中最负盛名得当首推传播学家罗杰斯(Everett M、

 Rogers)及其著作《创新推广》(Diffusion of Innovation)。《创新推广》初版发行于 1960年,现在最新得版本为 1995 年修订版。罗杰斯在书中认为,创新推广就是指一项新事物通过特定得传播通道,逐渐为某些特定社群成员所了解与采用得过程,也就是推广作用得应用.书中所论述到得创新推广理论中,其中有几点受到广泛关注:

 (一)创新得推广决策过程,包括五个阶段 1、获知(Knowledge)-—接触创新并略知其如何运作 2、说服(Persuasion)—-有关创新得态度形成 3、决策(Decision)--确定采用或拒绝一项创新活动 4、实施(Implementation)-—投入创新得运用

 5、确认(Confirmation)—-强化或撤回关于创新得决定 (二)受采用得创新得特征

 1、相对优越性——一项创新优越于它所取代得旧观念得程度;

 2、兼容性—-一项创新与现有价值观、以往经验预期采用者得需求同存得程度; 3、复杂性—-一项创新理解与运用得难度;

 4、可实验性--一项创新在有限基础上可被试验得程度; 十一、 Uses and gratifications theory (UGT)

 使用与满足理论

 Uses and gratifications theory (UGT)

 is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs、 UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding mass munication、 Diverging from other media effect theories that question "what does media do to people?", UGT focuses on ”what do peo p le do with m e dia ? ”

 This mun i c a ti o n t heory is posit i v istic in its approach, based in the socio—psychological munication tradition, and focuses on munication at the mass media scale、 The driving question of UGT is:

 Why do people use media and what do they use them for? UGT discusses how users deliberately choose media that will satis f y gi v en n e eds and allow one t o enhance knowled g e , relax a t ion, social interactions/panionship, diversion, or escape、

  It assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media、 Rather, the audience has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives、 Unlike other theoretical perspectives, UGT holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve gratification、 This theory would then imply that the media pete against other information sources for viewers’ gratification、

  U GT has a h eu r istic va l u e today be c a use it gives mun i cati o n sc h o lars a "perspective through which a number of ideas and theories about media choice, consumption, and even impact can be viewed

 使用与满足理论(Uses and Gratifications theory )就是认为阅听人(media audience)可以主动使用媒体来寻找可满足自身需求得信息.认为阅听人并非各类媒体下得无助者,而就是可利用媒体来满足各类不同得需求,这些需求即阅听人使用媒介得动机。

 使用与满足理论就是由 Elihu Katz、Jay Blumler、Mickael Gurevitch 等学者于1974 年出版得《大众传播媒体得使用》(The uses of Mass munication)一书中所提出。此理论强调以「主动得阅听人」为中心,反对媒体万能论以来被动接收者得概念,认为阅听人绝非被动得接收者,强调阅听人与媒体之间得自愿性与选择性。此一理论开启了新得研究方向,开始了阅听人如何运用传媒得研究,并持续发展出许多得相关研究。

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  十二、 Cultivation theory 教养理论

 Cultivation theory is a social theory which examines the long—term effects of television、 "The primary proposition of cultivation theory states that the more time people spend ”living" in the television world, the more likely they are to believe social reality portrayed on television、 Cultivation leaves people with a misperception of what is true in our world、

 Developed by George Gerbner and Larry Gross of the University of Pennsylvania, cultivation theory derived from several large—scale research projects as part of an overall research project entitled 'Cultural Indi

 cators’、 The purpose of the Cultural Indicators project was to identify and track the ’cultivated’ effects of television on viewers、 They were "concerned with the effects of television programming (particularly violent programming) on the attitudes and behaviors of the American public、" Gerbner asserts that the overall concern about the effects of television on audiences stemmed from the unprecedented centrality of television in American culture、 "The theory clearly posits that the cultivation effect occurs only after long—term, cumulative exposure to television、 ” He claimed that because TV contains so much violence, ”people who spend the most time in front of the tube develop an exaggerated belief in a mean and scary world、 ”He posited that television as a mass medium of munication had formed into a mon symbolic environment that bound diverse munities together, socializing people into standardized roles and behaviors、 "Today, the TV set is a key member of the household, with virtually unlimited access to every person in the family、" He pared the power of television to the power of religion, saying that television was to modern society what religion once was in earlier times、

 Cultivation Analysis is a positivistic theory, meaning it assumes the existence of objective reality and value-neutral research、 A study conducted by Jennings Bryant and Dorina Miron (2004), which surveyed almost 2,000 articles published in the three top mass munication journals since 1956, found that Cultivation Analysis was the third most frequently utilized theory, showing that it continues to be one of the most popular theories in mass munication research、

 教养理论(Cultivation Theory),又称培养理论、涵化理论、涵化假设、涵化分析,格伯纳等人认为, 在现代社会传播媒介提示得“象征性现实" 对人们认识与理解现实世界发挥着巨大得影响。

 由于传播媒介得某些倾向性、人们在心目中描绘得“主观现实” 与实际存在得客观现实之间发生着很大得偏离。同时,这种影响不就是短期得,而就是一个长期得、潜移默化得、培养得过程, 它在不知不觉当中制约着人们得现实观。在这个意义上,格伯纳等人将这一研究称为“教养理论”。

 十三、 Limited-Effects Theory 有限效果论

 1、 Media rarely directly influence individuals、

 2、 There is a two-step flow of media influence、

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  3、 By the time most people bee adults, they have developed strongly held group

 mitments such as political party and religious affiliations、 These affiliations provide an effective barrier against media influence、

 4、 When media effects do occur, they are modest and isolated、

 有限效果论主要观点就是:大众传播没有力量直接改变受传者对事物得态度,在人们作出某种决定之际,许多其她因素起着重要得作用,其中包括个人得政治、经济、文化、心理得既有倾向受传者对信息得需求与选择性接触机制,群体归属关系与群体规范,大众传播过程中得人际影响等等。

  十四、 Marshall Mcluhan Media Theory 麦克卢汉得媒介理论

 1、 The extensions of man

 Mcluhan’s idea that media literally extend sight,hearing,and touch t

 hrough time and space、 2、 The Medium Is the Massage

 Mcluhan’s idea the new forms of media transform our experience of ourselves and our society and this influence is ultimately more important than the content of specific messages、 3、 The Global Village

 Mcluhan’s conception of a new form of social organization emerging as instantaneous electronic media tie the entire world into one great social, political and cultural system 4、 "Hot" and ”cool" media

 In the first part of Understanding Media, McLuhan also stated that different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium、 Some media, such as film, were ”hot" — that is, they enhance one single sense, in this case vision, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort in filling in the details of a movie image、 McLuhan contrasted this with "cool" TV, which he claimed requires more effort on the part of viewer to determine meaning, and ics, which due to their minimal presentation of visual detail require a high degree of effort to fill in details that the cartoonist may have intended to portray、 A movie is thus said by McLuhan to be "hot", intensifying one single sense ”high definition", demanding a viewer's attention, and a ic book to be ”cool" and "low definition", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value、

 麦克卢汉得媒介理论:

 (一)媒介就是人体得延伸

  (二)媒介即讯息

  (三)热媒介与冷媒介

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  (四)地球村

 (五)对麦克卢汉媒介理论得总体评价

 (一)媒介就是人体得延伸

  1、内容

 媒介就是人体感官能力得延伸与扩展:文字印刷媒介就是视觉能力得延伸,广播就是听觉能力得延伸,电视就是视觉、听觉与触觉能力得延伸。

  2、评价

 (1)这个观点得提出就是为了说明传播媒介对人类感觉中枢得影响,她认为媒介与社会得发展史同时也就是人得感官能力由"统合-—分化-—再统合”得历史.

 (2)麦克卢汉得"媒介即人得延伸”得观点具有重要得启发意义,但就是它并不就是严密得科学考察得结论,而就是建立在"洞察"基础上得一种思辨性得推论.

  (二)媒介即讯息

  1、内容

 媒介本身才就是真正得讯息,也就就是说,人类有了某种媒介才可能从事与之相应得传播或其她社会活动,因此真正有意义得讯息不就是各个时代得传播内容,而就是这个时代所使用得传播工具得性质,以及它所带来得可能性与造成得社会后果。

  2、评价

  意义:

 (1)这就是麦克卢汉对传播媒介技术在人类社会发展中得地位与作用得高度概括。

  (2)强调媒体就是社会发展得动力,也就是区分不同社会形态得标志

  缺陷:

 (1)把媒介技术瞧作社会发展得唯一动力——极端性

 (2)忽略了人得主观能动性,社会制度对它得制约-—片面性,因为媒介就是人创造得,人如何利用与控制媒介,媒介得社会占有结构,所有制关系如何,也反过来规定媒介活动得特点与作用性质。

 (三)热媒介与冷媒介

  1、含义

 (1)热媒介:传递得信息明确清晰,接受者无须动员更多得感官与思维活动就能理解,它本身就就是”热得”,如照片、广播、电影等。需要受众参与其中得程度低

 (2)冷媒介:提供给受众得讯息模糊、不充分,需要受众予以补充、联想,受众参与其中得程度高,如漫画、电视、电话等.

  2、评价

 麦克卢汉主张将媒介这样划分,就是为说明正确运用它得重要,给人以启示。各种媒介作用于人得方式不同,引起得心理行为反应也各具特点,对媒介得研究应把这些因素考虑在内,但就是这种分类得确有些牵强而且似就是而非。

 四)地球村

  1、内容:

 在自然社会,口语就是主要以传播媒介,人得交往受距离得限制,文学印刷媒介产生后,人类由"耳朵得社会"进入”眼睛得社会”人与人之间联系变得疏远。电子媒介得出现与普及改变了这种状况,它们以接近于实时得传播速度与强烈得现场感、目击感把遥远得世界拉得很近,,人与人之间得距离感觉上大大缩短,于就是整个世界变成一个"地球村",任何国家与社会都就是村庄得一部分。

  2、影响

 地球村得出现与发展给人类社会带来极大影响,人与人,社会与社会,国家与国家得相互依赖性及关系得密切程度大大增强,经社交等社会结构要素得形态发生了前所未有得变化.

 (五)对麦克卢汉媒介理论得总体评价

 1、意义

 (1)她得理论有独到得见解,她将媒介得概念扩大,不仅指大众传播与人际传播得媒介,而且包括人际互动得所有介质。

 (2)她将媒介置于一个广阔得社会,历史情境中研究.因此其媒介分析有了高度与纵深得品质。开拓了从媒介技术出发观察人类社会发展得视角,并强调了媒介技术得社会历史作用。

 (3)她得这些认识角度与方式开拓了媒介研究得眼界与范围,也使人们真正瞧到媒介作为客观存在自身得价值与作用。

 (4)关于地球村得预言也符合当前世界得发展趋势。

  2、局限

 (1)只强调媒介工具与技术得巨大能动性,把媒介技术视为社会发展与变革得唯一决定因素,忽略了其她复杂社会因素得作用。

 (2)忽略了人得主体性与主观能动性,人仿佛成为媒介主宰得对象。

  (3)忽视媒介具体内容,对冷热媒介划分过于牵强

 (4)全部依据都集中在媒介工具对中枢感觉系统得影响上,由此解释得人类行为也就是片面得。

 1、 冷媒介与热媒介 A hot medium is one that extend one single sense in “high definition “High definition is the state of being well filled with date、And ,hot media do not leave so much to be filled or in pleted by the audience,namly,low in participation,such as radia,moive、By contrast ,a cold mediun is low dedinition and it gives a amount of information,there,cool media are high in participation or pletion by audience、for example,a photo ,there is too little information to understand、 2 两级传播、two-step flow of munication In simple words,it can be drawn”media source—opinion leaders —--general population、”when the opinion leaders adopted that from media ,thus,changes had happened on the pupulace、this suggests that ideas ofen flow from to the opinion leaders and from them the less active section of

 the population、To illustrate it ,I’ll give an example:A man is going to vote A for predisent,but his friend strongly remended B,what’s more,his friend lists many reasons that from media ,at last,the man choosed B、The voting course is the two—step flow of munication、 3、 意见领袖 opinion leadership The opinion leadership playd a special role in the network of personal relationgships, they engaged in political dission much more than the

 rest of the respondents、 o illustrate it ,I’ll give an example:A man is going to vote A for predisent,but his friend strongly remended B,what’s more,his friend lists many reasons that from media ,at last,the man choosed B、In this course ,the friend is the opinion leadership、 3、Three hypothetial positions

 ①.The first hypothetial position is the dominant-hegemonic position,state in another way,when the viewer takes the connoted meaning from a medium ,the decodes the message in terms of the reference code in which it has been ecoded,we might say the viewer is operating inside

 the dominant code、 ②、The second is negotiated code、simply,corporate decodings,decoding within the negotiated version contains a mixture of adaptive and oppositional elements、what"s more, negotiated codes operate through particular or situated logics、 ③、The third is oppositional code、As we all know,it is possible for a viwer perfectly to understand the meaning given by a discourse but to decode the message in a globally contrary way、Viwers detotalized the message in the preferred code in order to retotalize the message、 4、 Ecoding and decoding编码与译码 Ecoding is that the media express their ideas through constructing some of the limits and parameters、It can attempt to”pre-let"but can"t prescibe or guarantee、Dedoding has its own conditions of existence、The audience understands the message in their own way、Thus,there is no necessary correspondence between encoding and decoding,and, the two hardly be “a perfectly equivalent circuit”、 5、MINERVA’s Owl begins its flight only in the gathering dusk、 Literally,the MINERVA is the wisdom goddness of Roman,and the “owl"refers to intelligence、The whole senstence means that the crystallization(结晶)

 of culture achieved in the period that saw the decline the fall of civilization、 In history,the illustration (例子)are abundant,such as classical Greece,Rome,the rupublican cities of Itanly,and so forth、 6、According to Innis,what’s follow after the flowering of the culture?(这道题答案不就是很确定哦!) After the flowering of the culture,here es its collapse、As the saying puts it , MINERVA’s Owl begins its flight only in the gathering dusk、Taking Byzantine Empire (拜占庭帝国)

 as an example:When it achieved great culture in forteen centuries and fifteen centuries,howerve ,it was falling into ingredent(崩溃) munication and that marked changes in munication、 学派名称及代表人物、主要思想

 学派名称 代表人物 主要思想 伯明翰学派 (Britsh Cutural Studies) (The birminghan school of cultural studies)

 Stuart Hall Ecoding and decoding; Three hypothetial positions(三大假设) 法兰克福学派(历史最悠久) The Frankfort School

  Max Horkhemer Theodor Adorno

 芝加哥学派(20 世纪美国社会科学领域最有影响得学派) The Chicago School Robert Park (被称为开创了大众传播研究得学者)

 多伦多学派 (The Toronto School) Harold Innis; Marshall Mcluhan Media determinism(媒介决定论) Hot and cold; Media extension (媒介延伸)

 传播学四大奠基人(the four funders of minicatiology)

 1. Lazarsfeld :opinion leadship; two—step flow of munication 2. Lasswell:5W 3. Lewin:

 gate-keeper;(把关人)

 4. Cart horland :research of persuasion(说服效果研究)

 PS:美国学者多为经验学派(emprical shool),欧洲尤其就是以Frankfort 学派为代表主要为批判学派(critical school)

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