跨文化总结

　 Chapter1 1. The nature of Culture: (1) Culture is like an iceberg

　(2) Culture is our software

　(3) Culture is like the water a fish swims in

　(4) Culture is the grammar of our behavior

　2. The definition of culture Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, role, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. 3. The definition of subcultures Subcultures exist within dominant culture, and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region. 4. Scholars of different fields defined culture from their own perspectives Anthropological perspective, psychological perspective, sociological

　 perspective,

　 intercultural

　 perspective,

　 etc. 5. Our definition of culture

　We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of

　 time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. 6. Characteristics of culture

　(1) culture is learned (2) culture is dynamic (3) culture is pervasive (4) culture is integrated (5) culture is adaptive

　 (1) culture is learned：

　a. We learn our culture through proverbs b. We learn our culture from folklore c. We learn our culture through art d. We learn our culture through mass media

　7. Culture identity defined:

　 Culture identity refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. People consciously identify themselves with a group that has a shared system of symbols and meanings as well as norms for conduct. 8. Formation of culture identity a. unexamined culture identity b. culture identity search

　c. culture identity achievement 9. Characteristics of culture identity Culture identity is central to a person’s sense of self Culture identity is dynamic, and one’s culture identity Culture identity is also multifaceted components of their

　 self-concept. 10. the definition of subculture

　Subcultures exist within dominant culture, and often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region. 11. components of communication

　a. sender/source b. message c. encoding d. channel e. receiver f. decoding g. feedback h. noise 12. In western culture, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one’s personal goal. 13. the components of noise

　a. external noise(外界干扰) b. physiological noise （生理干扰）

　c. psychological noise（心理干扰）

　d. semantic noise(语义干扰) 14. the components of context

　a. the physical context b. the social context c. the interpersonal context. 15. What is the relationship between culture and communication?

　 culture inherently(天性的，固有的) contain communication systems. Communication and culture are inseparable. A. cultures generate symbols, rituals(宗教习惯)， customs, and formats.

　 16. How does culture affect its communication style?

　 Each culture encourages a particular communication style expected within it. This implies not only using correct symbols, but also applying the appropriate communication style for the occasion. 17. The definition of intercultural communication

　 More precisely intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol system are distinct enough to alter the communication event. 18. Forms of intercultural communication

　 a. international communication b. interracial communication c. interethnic communication d. intracultural(同一文化内的) communication

　19. the definition of anxiety and uncertainty

　a. anxiety occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not being totally present in the communication transaction(事务).

　b. uncertainty refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or others’ feelings and behaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous(含糊的，模棱两可的) situation that evokes anxiety. 20. Strategies to overcome anxiety and uncertainty

　 A. we directly gather information through verbal interrogation

　 (询问) or by asking our counterparts questions about themselves.

　 B. we open ourselves to our counterparts (极其相似的人) by disclosing personal information that they do not know. 21. Assuming similarity instead of difference（假定相似性代替差异性）重点考案例分析

　The second barrier is assuming similarity instead of difference. It refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is.(假定一致性是指认为来自另一文化的他人和自己相似或他人的处境相似，而事实上却并非如此). 22. The definition of ethnocentrism （民族中心主义）。

　Ethnocentrism refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. To be ethnocentric is to believe in the superiority of one’s own culture. 23. The definition of stereotyping(文化思维定式)。

　The term is more broadly used to refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. 24. The definition of prejudice(偏见)。

　Prejudice refers to the irrational(无理性的) dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual

　 orientation(性取向)。

　25. the definition of racism

　 Racism is any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes haracteristics or status to individuals based on their race. 26. Reasons for the persistence(固定) of ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism.

　 a. socialization b. social benefits c. economic benefits. d. psychological benefits. 27.The relationship between language and culture is that they are like mirrors to each other. Each one reflects and is reflected by the other. 28. five components of translation problems

　A. lack of vocabulary b. lack of idiomatic 习语) equivalence c. lack of grammatical-syntactical(语法和句法) equivalence

　 d. lack of experiential equivalence e. lack of conceptual equivalence 29. Verbal communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicating with each other by using language. 30. The linguistic determinist interpretation and the linguistic relativity interpretation. (1) the view from the linguistic determinist interpretation is that

　 language structure controls thoughts and cultural norms. (2)Linguistic relativity holds that culture is controlled by and controls language. 31. Language as a reflection of the environment.

　Language as a reflection of values. 32. Sometimes different cultures use identical words that have different meanings. The results can be humorous, annoying, or costly, depending on the circumstances. 33.the distinguish between direct and indirect styles.

　 The direct and indirect styles differ in the extent to which communicators reveal their intentions through their tone of voice and straightforwardness of their message. In the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions. In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intention. 34. elaborate, exacting and succinct styles

　(1) An elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language.(many Arab, middle Eastern, and Afro-American cultures.

　 (2) An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans. They tend to prefer an exacting style of interaction consistent with a “Just the facts” mentality.

　 (3) A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements, and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some Native American cultures. 35. the distinguish of personal and contextual styles

　 (1) the personal communication style is one that emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker.

　 (2) a contextual style highlights one’s role identity and status. 36. instrumental and affective style

　 An instrumental verbal style as sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker users communication to achieve some goal or outcome.

　An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but with the process. 37.the definition of dialects and sociolects(方言和社会方言)

　 Dialects refer to geographical differences and these differences can be national, regional or local.

　 Sociolects are also another form of linguistic variation. In fact, some people consider a sociolect as a social dialect referring to a particular social class. Indeed, one’s social background does influence one’s choice of linguistic forms and one’s language reveals one’s identity.

　 38.the definition of pidgin and lingua franca(洋径邦语和通用语)。

　 A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages for restricted purposes such as trading.

　 A lingua franca refers to a specific language that is used as an international means of communication. 39. the characteristics of pidgin languages.

　 (1) they have no native speakers (2) the linguistic and grammatical structure of pidgin languages is always simple and based on one or two other languages. 40. the definition of jargon(行话)

　Jargon refers to the special or technical vocabularies developed to meet the special needs of particular professions such as medicine and law. 41. five verbal communication styles

　Direct/ indirect ; self-enhancement/self-effacement ;(自我夸大 自我贬低) elaborate/exacting/succinct (详细阐释 严格阐释 简单阐释) personal/contextual （个体语境）

　instrumental/affective （实效主义 情感主义）

　42. the significance of nonverbal communication

　First nonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we get from conversations.

　Second, nonverbal behavior is significant because it

　 spontaneously( 自然而然) reflects the subconsciousness. (潜意识)。

　 Third reason that nonverbal communication is significant is that we cannot avoid communicating.

　43.The functions of nonverbal communication

　 a. repeating b. complementing (恭维) c. substituting (替代言语的功能) d. regulating (控制局面的功能) e. contradicting (反驳)。

　Substituting: nonverbal messages may substitute verbal ones in certain settings.

　Nonverbal behaviors can help control verbal interactions by regulating them.

　Certain nonverbal behaviors can contradict spoken words.

　44. the definition of paralanguage and silence

　 Paralanguage is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning.

　45. the definition of chronemics (时间行为)

　Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time.

　46. monochrome and polychrome (单维时间取向 多维时间取向)

　Monochrome includes Germany Austria Switzerland and the United states.

　Polychrome includes Chinese Indians Arabs Latin Americans and Mediterraneans.( 地中海)

　 47. the three aspects of proxemics(空间关系学)

　 a. fixed features of space

　b. semifixed features of space(半固定的)

　 c. personal space

　48. In conclusion, southern Europeans (like the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Italians) as well as Latin Americans and Middle Easterners emphasize closer personal space than the Americans and the British. 49. the categories of nonverbal communication

　 a. oculesics(目光语) is the study of communications sent by the eyes.

　 b. olfactics (嗅觉) is the study of communication via smell.

　c. haptics(触觉 ) refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact

　 d. kinesics(身势语) refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body poison, body movement, and forms of greeting and their relations to communication.

　e. chromatics(色彩学) is the study of color use in affecting people’s perceptions, behaviors and impressions of others.

　f. attire(服装学) clothing and physical appearance are usually called attire. 50. the definition of cultural patterns

　 Culture patterns can be defined as following: shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time and that lead to roughly similar behavior across similar situation. 51. the components of cultural patterns

　a. beliefs: a belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world.

　 b. values: values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just of unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel.

　 c. norm(行为规范)：

　norms are the socially expectations of appropriate behaviors.

　 d. social practices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow.

　 Americans value achievement, Chinese value power, Westerners value self-direction, Asians value conformity. 52. A high context communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message.

　A low context communication is just the opposite; the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code.

　 High-context cultures, because of tradition and history, change

　 very little over time. These are cultures in which consistent messages have produced consistent responses to the environment. In high-context cultures, information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence.

　 In low-context cultures, the verbal message contains most of the information and very little is shown in the context or the participants. Members of low-context cultures expect messages to be detailed, clear-cut, and definite. 53.three potential types of relations between humans and nature

　 a. mastery-over-nature view

　 b. harmony-with-nature view

　 c. subjugation-to-nature view 54. six potential solutions to human nature orientation

　 a. humans are evil but changeable b. humans are evil and unchangeable c. humans are neutral with respect to good and evil d. humans are a mixture of good and evil e. humans are good but changeable f. humans are good and unchangeable. 55.the three types of time orientation (时间价值取向)

　 a. value-past orientation b. value-present orientation

　 c. value-future orientation 56.the three types of activity orientation

　 a. value-doing orientation b. value-being orientation

　 c.value-being-in-becoming orientation(自我实现) 57. the three types of relational orientation

　a. value-individualism orientation b. value-lineality orientation(源于阶级关系的价值取向) c. value-collaterality orientation (关联实体的价值取向) 58. the definition of individual and collectivism(集体主义)

　 The individual is the single most important unit in any social setting, regardless of the size of that unit, and the uniqueness of each individual is of great value.

　 Collectivism is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-group and out-groups. 59. uncertainty avoidance

　 Uncertainty avoidance deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty.

　 In high uncertainty avoidance cultures as “ what is different, is dangerous,”

　In low uncertainty avoidance cultures as “ what is different, is curious. 60.the definition of power distance

　 Power distance is “ the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally”.

　 61. employees in organizations “live in order to work” in masculine cultures and “work in order to live ” in feminine cultures. 62.three assumptions about human communication

　 a. communication is rule governed

　 b. contexts specify the appropriate

　 c. rules are culturally diverse 63. Chinese business values emphasize kinship (位缘关系)，interpersonal connections, respect for elders and hierarchy. 64. factors affecting acculturation

　 a. the role of communication

　 b. the role of the host environment (主流文化)

　c. the role of predisposition(素质) 65. the forms of culture shock

　 a. language shock b. role shock c. transition shock d. culture fatigue e. education shock

　66.the best way to get to know and understand another culture is to establish relationships with host nationals

　 Host nationals know the norms and subtleties of their culture and can be of immense help in assisting you to learn and understand them.

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